on the Lorica Musculata
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Unlike the other forms of Roman armor, the musculata is almost always richly decorated. Each of these images has a specific meaning and may help explain the personality of the wearer. They exist in a variety of combinations, but some combinations are more common than others, and some happen only during certain periods. For example, heraldic griffins flanking a candelabrum is one of the most common images found on lorica musculata during the Imperial Period. However, the age of Augustus and Hadrian are full on one-of-a-kind examples. I am compiling this list for two reasons. First, to help other art historians "decipher" these loricae by looking at their various symbols and secondly, to give re-enactors references from which to pattern their own loricae. Romans loved to experiment, and the musculata allows for far more individuality than other types of armor. I hope that individuals will be able to look at this material and create their own unique iconography as well. In terms of sources for identifying these images I am relying on Diana Kleiner's Roman Sculpture and Cornelius Vermuele's The Cuirassed Statues of Greece and Rome. In all cases these images are mine, (so use them freely!!), and I have tried to take them from existing examples of loricae musculata. In certain cases, because details are difficult to read, I have borrowed equivalent images from other Roman sources, altars, reliefs, trophies etc. Some of these images are more common on tongue pteruges than on the cuirass or abdomen. Some only occur on some parts of the cuirass, such as the abdomen, or breast; for example, you never see the gorgoneion on the abdomen. Where warranted, I will indicate where these images are most likely to be found on the cuirass -- though there are the occasional oddballs -- and speculate on their possible meanings. I will be updating this imagery from time to time, starting with the most common images and moving to the less common. In time I would like to develop a searchable database, but since I am lacking in both time and resources, I have grouped them by general themes. You can go to each of these broad themes by clicking on the links on the right.  The Gorgoneion or Medusa's head is the most common imagery on the lorica musculata. (This is sometimes called the "Nemesis" but the nemesis is a separate tradition.) Even lorica that have no other imagery will most often have the gorgoneion. It is always found on the breast on the cuirass, and more rarely on the tongue pteruges. It is an apotropaic device, meant to ward off evil and to intimidate your enemies and was adopted from the Greek practice. In comes in a variety of forms, but generally they are low in relief with wide eyes and open mouth and wild hair and wings framing the top of the head. Snakes are common, but not at all mandatory, and often are excluded. Usually, the snake tails are entwined under the chin in a simple overhand or square knot. Evidence suggests that they were painted with lifelike colors when possible. Here are various examples. )
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) Nikes are personifications of victory and the name and the imagery is borrowed from Greek sources. The figures are always females with wings, clothed in long flowing Greek dresses. Often they are carrying laurels or garlands in honor of the victor. They are, appropriately, very active figures and are rarely just standing around. They can also be seen writing on shields, erecting trophies or holding banners or signum, crowning victors or killing sacrificial animals or subjugating barbarians. All of this imagery represents in various forms the presence of a Roman victory. They are very often paired and show up most often on the middle abdomen of the cuirass but can also appear on the tongue pteurges or on the shoulder harnesses as can be seen in the last example. (See also: Candelabrum) )
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The Roman Eagle or aquila is one of the most ubiquitous images in Roman art and the lorica musculata is no exception. Generally they are found on the tongue pteruges and on rare occasion, the cuirass itself, usually on the lower abdomen of the cuirass. Eagles are decidedly imperial symbols and generally represent the imperium of the Roman State and its military. Often however they are funeral in context and represent the apotheosis of the emperor, as can be seen in the vault of the Arch of Titus. The eagle is usually shown in profile with its talons gripping a standard or in this case what appears to be a thunderbolt. Sometimes just the head in profile suffices. )
A Signum is of course the standard of the Roman army and they are often seen on the lorica musculata, as emblems of the Roman military. Roman trophies generally consist of spoiled weapons and arms, erected on a pole, to commemorate a victory. It's inclusion on the lorica musculata is obvious. Generally seen on the upper abdomen or breast in the middle section of the cuirass. I've also seen smaller ones on the tongue pteruges and there is one on the backplate of the primaporta augustus, the only time I've seen such decoration on a backplate. There are many of these, but this is a fabulous one from the capitoline hill in Rome. )
Soldiers are also ubiquitous symbols of Roman military might. They are often seen singly as a personification of the entire Roman Army. Subjugated barbarians are a frequent favorite topic in Roman art and the lorica musculata is no exception. They are often shown bound, or they are seen standing in tribute. The most famous example comes from the Primaporta Augustus. Roman depictions of barbarians always hold to a generic stereotype with phyrgian caps, long sleeves and trousers, regardless of where they actually came from. They are common on the breastplate and pteruges. These examples are from the arch of Septimus Severus. )
There is also a very similar scene, with fabulous details of barbarians and trophies from this loricata, of Lucius Verus, from the Vatican collection. (Notice also the wide variety of animals and zodiac symbols on the tongue pteruges.) Thunderbolts are generally military symbols, though the pattern is borrowed from the Greeks and clearly have reference to Jove and other thunder deities. They are most often found on the shoulder harnesses and are probably the MOST common iconography for the shoulder harness. )
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Rome of course had a civic religion, so the overlap between military and religious symbols is fairly large. The symbols below however, are predominantly of a religious and not a military nature. Candelabrae are very common symbols on the lorica musculata, particularly during the Imperial period from the late Julio-Claudian period through the Antonine Period. It is usually paired with some other imagery either Nike figures, griffins or some other heraldic animal. The candelabrum is more than a lamp stand. It is actually a portable incense altar and represents the sacred focus or fire of Rome. They are very ornate, usually with three legs and a series of knobs, flowers and volutes, the examples below even have eagles and sphinxes on them. They are never branched however. When seen with Nikes, it is usually a representation of an offering of thanks for a victory or hope for a future one. Nikes are often seen putting incense or libations on the candelabrum. When seen with griffins or other animals, the animals are usually facing the candelabrum and often have a paw raised to touch it, representing their submission to this religious symbol. These were large common objects in everyday Roman religious life and were made of bronze and marble. Below are some images of some actual Candelabrae from the Vatican collection, some details from actual loricae and some larger details showing how they look in context. )
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Bucrania are cow skulls. After performing a sacrifice, the skull of the victim (yes, that's the technical term) would be boiled, de-fleshed and placed on the shrine. Eventually they were rendered permanently in marble. Bucrania are not often seen on the cuirass but they are frequently seen on the tongue pteruges. Here is an example from the tomb of Celia Metellus on the Appian Way. )
Wherever there are cow-skulls or bucrania there are almost always garlands. Together they represent a sacrificial symbol that also represents bounty, plenty and fecundity. Garlands are found on the cuirass, but they are decidedly different than rosettes, which seems to be a decorative theme. Rosettes are distinguished from Garlands in that the flowers are separated and have vines growing between them, as in this example. Garlands are large draped bundles of flowers and fruits. There are a number of Roman liturgical objects that represent Roman religion. Patens are shallow dishes for libations and offerings, but axes, mitres, tongs for hot coals and many other devices all have religious implications. These motifs are most often found on the tongue pteruges. Here is a frieze of many of these devices from the Temple of Vespasian in the Roman Forum, including bucrania, amphora, paten and mitres (which is pointed hat that looks somewhat like an attic helm). )
There are also mitres on the middle two tongue pteruges of second row in this example. There are a great many images on loricae that are neither religious or military in origin. Discovering their unique meaning is very challenging, but it demonstrates, I think, the incredible personal nature of these objects. Included is a brief and by no means comprehensive list of the many decorative themes found on the lorica musculata. Griffins Griffins are the most common animals found on the lorica musculata, particularly during the high empire. Generally they are found on the middle section of the cuirass, in pairs, flanking a candelabrum or similar device in heraldic fashion. )
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Sphinxes Sphinxes also appear, but in far fewer instances than griffins. They are not usually arranged in heraldic fashion however. Sphinxes are more likely used as a decoration on the shoulder harnesses, lower abdomen, tongue pteruges or breast. Hippocampi/Sea Creatures More rare, but still present are hippocampi or sea creatures, usually flanking a central device much like the griffins. They are often seen with nereids. Other animals: Lions, Stags, Hounds Bulls & Birds Stags are Hounds often seen accompanying Nikes or other deities, where they are probably the familiars of the goddess Diana. Bulls are usually seen as sacrificial victims. Birds of all types are common, including but not limited to cranes, crows, pelicans, gulls, doves (which are probably sacrificial animals as well) wrens and even songbirds. Roosters are the most common after eagles. Birds are most often found in the margins of the cuirass, or more commonly on tongue pteruges. Wolf, bear and lion heads are also common, but usually as decorations for fastening the shoulder harnesses or on tongue pteruges. The variety of animals used in the tongue pteruges is endless, but is limited to animals within the Roman Empire and common mythological animals. We rarely see elephants and we never see rhinocerii, but crocodiles do show up from time to time. Plants are also seen on the lorica musculata, but in most cases, vegetal motifs are largely decorative. Acanthus Acanthus is a common weed growing in the Mediterranean, and the Greeks were the first to make use of it as a decorative motif, going all the way back to the archaic period (8-6th C. BC). The leaf is found in architecture, pottery, decorative arts, and of course, the lorica musculata. Just as the gorgoneion is the most common motif found on the breast, and the candelabrum is the most common image for the middle section, the acanthus is the most common image found on the lower abdomen, though the detail and form varies greatly. The example on the left is more typical and quite subdued, while the one on the right is downright theatrical. Both styles are quite common. )
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Most often, the tongue pteruges are decorated with a wide variety of themes, but on occasion they will be uniformly rendered with a stylized acanthus motif as in the following example. )
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Flowers/Rosettes It's funny that the stereotype of militaristic culture is that it lacks any aesthetic sensibilities and that everything is brutal, functional, utilitarian. That's not military culture, that's MODERN culture. The reality is exactly the opposite. Spartans went into battle with elaborated coifed hair. Japanese Samurai were adorned in silk brocade, and Gothic armor is resplendent with decoration. The 'Ornamental Male' as the phenomenon is known in anthropological circles, was obviously not unknown in Roman times as well, as this example attests. Warrior culture is more often than not, more refined, more aesthetic, not less. If we actually met 'Klingons' in space, my guess is that rather than thuggish brutes, we would see an amazing level of cultural effetness. One thing I can say for certain; separating beauty, particularly lyrical natural beauty, from masculinity is a modern affection and I suspect that to the person that commissioned this work of art, these rosettes are dead butch. )
Roma Roma is a personification of the city and empire of Rome. She is usually a goddess with an attic helm, and shield. She is seen in a number of narrative works and is fairly common on the musculata, but much less than you might think. Romulus and Remus Romulus and Remus are the legendary founders of Rome, found by the river Tiber, suckled by a she-wolf. The She-wolf and twins are therefore a symbol of the empire. They are most often found on the lower abdomen. )
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River Gods River gods are usually depicted as older semi-draped classical nudes, with full beards. They are always shown in a recumbent position, with an amphora or jug with flowing water. They are usually found on the lower abdomen, either singly, or in pairs. Generally, it is believed that these images represent actual rivers. Nearly all ancient cities were situated on significant rivers. These rivers were critical for both trade and agriculture. Rome is indivisible from the Tiber. These river gods might represent specific rivers, and therefore might be a reference to the owner's home country. Sometimes we can identify which rivers are represented. A crocodile is a dead give away that we are looking at the nile. Generally though it is hard to tell which river is referenced, particularly if the rivers are all european. The river deity might also be just a general reference to nature. They are often seen holding reeds or palms, or even oars. )
Nereids are sea or water nymphs and often accompany River gods as personifications of water and streams. When we see marine themes, such as nereids and hippocampi, it is tempting to think we may be looking at the cuirass of a naval officer, but no positive identification has ever been made, so this is just speculation. )
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Erotes Erotes are cupid figures, and are quite common. Now normally, cupid is not something you would associate with military imagery, but that is a modern conception. Venus is a warrior-goddess in many contexts and her son is likewise, by extension, a war-figure. These images come from an altar to Mars from the Museo Palazzo Massimo in Rome. The next one is a shoulder harnesses showing erotes. The final image is a full-seize eros bending a bow in the Vatican Museum. )
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A number of tongue pteruges have zodiac symbols as well. In images of emperors, it has been noted that often, their birth sign is incorporated into the imagery. Above Augustus in the Gemma Augustea, for example, there is the sign of Capricorn, Augustus' birth sign. Elsewhere we see pisces, cancer, ares, libra and many others. This might be a nice way for a re-enactor to personalize his own kit with private messages. This loricata is an excellent example. Look through the many tongue pteruges in my thumbnails section, you will see tons of this stuff. |
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